Tips to improve stuttering according to the research: "Linguistic features of stuttering during spontaneous speech" (2023, December) (Address demands regarding linguistic, social-cognitive, and emotional factors, that trigger stuttering; address the impact on timing of linguistic planning of a word)

Tips to improve stuttering according to the research: "Linguistic features of stuttering during spontaneous speech" (2023, December) (Address demands regarding linguistic, social-cognitive, and emotional factors, that trigger stuttering; address the impact on timing of linguistic planning of a word) The curious PWS (person who stutters) in me read [this](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0094730X23000591) research. After finishing reading, I summed up the key points. The goal of this research was to examine spontaneous speech from adults who stutter to determine how **demands** on linguistic processes (e.g., lexical selection, phonological encoding) – impact the predictability of stuttering events. **Intro:** * Our study found that the following linguistic features were predictive of stuttering events: word frequency, neighborhood density, initial phoneme, grammatical function, word length, word position, and words associated with increased planning **demands** (e.g., longer words, low frequency words). Howell: This is due to the impact on planning time e.g., longer words take longer to plan and therefore are more likely to be stuttered * Linguistic, social-cognitive, and emotional factors contribute to the likelihood that stuttering occurs * Word frequency refers to how often a word occurs in a language. Words with higher frequencies are more easily accessed because they are more often encountered. Words with lower frequencies put increased **demand** on speech production. The phonological encoding required to produce a lower frequency word is less familiar to the speaker making it more taxing, therefore more vulnerable to stuttering events * Neighborhood density is the number of words that are phonologically similar to a target word based on the modification of a single phoneme, for example, the word “cat” has high neighborhood density, as several words are phonologically similar to “cat” (e.g., “cap,” “bat,” “hat”). Words lower in neighborhood density (i.e., those with fewer neighbors) are more likely to be stuttered. Speech production **demands** are lower when the processing of phonemes is shared by neighbors. Words lower in neighborhood density do not benefit from shared processing of phonemes, making them more likely to be stuttered * These linguistic features are representative of different processing levels within speech production (i.e., lexical selection, phonological encoding, phonetic encoding) * Howell's EXPLAN model (Execution and Planning model): Stuttering occurs when the timing (i.e., conceptual preparation through articulation) of [linguistic planning](https://www.google.com/search?q=%22linguistic+planning%22&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiNn7jjp5qEAxVht_0HHTnpBOQQ2-cCegQIABAA&oq=%22linguistic+planning%22) of a word overlaps with the motor execution of a word * We tested spontaneous speech because it places different **demands** on the speaker than read speech, such as different allocation of cognitive resources. For example, when reading aloud, the concepts and words are predetermined and not generated by the speaker, thus impacting the cognitive **demand** of the task. Spontaneous speech contains increased propositionality (i.e., the meaningfulness of the speech to the speaker, such as a person’s name), which is more likely to be stuttered * The predictability of stuttering events sometimes varies between children and adults, potentially due to changes in speaking strategies throughout development **Tips**: (that I extracted from the research) * Address these heightened **demands** (regarding linguistic features) that **trigger** stuttering: word frequency, neighborhood density, initial phoneme, grammatical function, word length, word position, and words associated with increased planning **demands** (e.g., longer words, low frequency words) * Address heightened **demands** that **trigger** stuttering, regarding linguistic, social-cognitive, and emotional factors (that can trigger stuttering) * Address the timing of linguistic planning of a word that overlaps with its motor execution * Address the impact on planning time, for example: * longer words take longer to plan and therefore are more likely to be stuttered * lower word frequency are (1) more difficult accessed, or (2) the phonological encoding required to produce a lower frequency word is less familiar (and thus more taxing, and more **demand** on speech production) * words on lower neighborhood density do not benefit from shared processing of phonemes * words are not predetermined and generated by the speaker (and thus, more cognitive **demand** of the task * propositional-speech (i.e., the meaningfulness of the speech to the speaker, such as a person’s name)